DEVELOPING AFFORDABLE WORKFLOW FOR DIGITAL PRESERVATION OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE THROUGH PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND 3D GAUSSIAN SPLATTING
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21837/pm.v24i42.2076Keywords:
Islamic Heritage, 3D Gaussian Splatting, Photogrammetry, Colmap, Structure from Motion (SfM), SkySplatAbstract
The rapid dilapidation of Malaysia's Islamic architectural heritage outpaces physical conservation, necessitating an affordable 3D digital documentation workflow requiring minimal manpower. This paper develops a cost-effective workflow through a comparative study of conventional photogrammetry and 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS). The methodology utilizes low-specification hardware - a consumer-grade UAV and smartphone, CPU-only processing, and open-source software. Between 150 and 200 video frames of a Masjid Sg. Chinchin roof crown replica were extracted for 3D reconstruction. Quantitative findings reveal that conventional photogrammetry effectively generates editable mesh models but yields low visual accuracy. Conversely, 3DGS produces highly accurate visual models—generating up to 723,566 splats for the UAV input, and is approximately 22% less time-consuming, although it lacks mesh editability. Furthermore, the UAV consistently outperformed the smartphone: while it produced a photogrammetry mesh with approximately 85% fewer vertices, it effectively eliminated visual noise. In the 3DGS workflow, the UAV generated 13% more splats, yielding sharper, more precise visuals. To address individual limitations, it is recommended to adopt a mixed workflow of 3D photogrammetry and 3DGS. By combining photogrammetry’s structural editability with the time-efficient, high-fidelity visual accuracy of UAV-driven 3DGS, this integrated approach ensures comprehensive, fast, affordable, and replicable 3D documentation. Future research should integrate CUDA processing for accuracy and develop an interactive 3DGS web database for Malaysia's Islamic architectural heritage.
Downloads
References
Bramble, J., & Lydon, D. (2025). Benefits and barriers: An exploratory study of drone use and LiDAR technology application in UK policing. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 27(3), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1177/14613557251340913
Brussee, A. (2025). Brush v0.3.0. https://github.com/ArthurBrussee/brush
Cignoni, P., Callieri, M., Corsini, M., Dellepiane, M., Ganovelli, F., & Ranzuglia, G. (2008). MeshLab: an Open-Source Mesh Processing Tool. In V. Scarano, R. De Chiara, & U. Erra (Eds.), Eurographics Italian Chapter Conference. The Eurographics Association. https://doi.org/10.2312/LocalChapterEvents/ItalChap/ItalianChapConf2008/129-136
Clini, P., Nespeca, R., Angeloni, R., & Coppetta, L. (2024). 3D representation of Architectural Heritage: a comparative analysis of NeRF, Gaussian Splatting, and SfM-MVS reconstructions using low-cost sensors. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XLVIII-2/W8-2024(2/W8-2024), 93–99. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-2-W8-2024-93-2024
Cruz, M., & Albuerne, A. (2025). Participatory Heritage Documentation: Low-cost Photogrammetry of Decayed Historic Buildings in the Medina of Tunis. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XLVIII-M-9–2025, 375–382. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-M-9-2025-375-2025
Dai, Z., Wolf, A., Ley, P.-P., Glück, T., Sundermeier, M. C., & Lachmayer, R. (2022). Requirements for Automotive LiDAR Systems. Sensors, 22(19), 7532. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197532
Eltner, A., & Sofia, G. (2020). Structure from motion photogrammetric technique. In P. Tarolli & S. M. Mudd (Eds.), Remote Sensing of Geomorphology (Vol. 23, pp. 1–24). Elsevier. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64177-9.00001-1
Gautier, Q. K., Garrison, T. G., Rushton, F., Bouck, N., Lo, E., Tueller, P., Schurgers, C., & Kastner, R. (2020). Low-cost 3D scanning systems for cultural heritage documentation. Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development, 10(4), 437–455. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCHMSD-03-2020-0032
Huang, X., Liu, X., Wan, Y., Zheng, Z., Zhang, B., Xiong, M., Pei, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2025). SkySplat: Generalizable 3D Gaussian Splatting from Multi-Temporal Sparse Satellite Images. https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.09479
Isa, B. H. M. (2021, March 17). Rumah tradisional Negeri Sembilan usang, terbiar. Utusan Malaysia. https://www.utusan.com.my/berita/2021/03/rumah-tradisional-negeri-sembilan-usang-terbiar/
Isa, B. H. M. (2022, February). Lima binaan warisan di Negeri Sembilan dibaik pulih. Utusan Online. https://www.utusan.com.my/nasional/2022/02/lima-binaan-warisan-di-negeri-sembilan-dibaik-pulih/
Jalil, M. A. (2022, May). Masjid 180 tahun dibaik pulih. https://www.hmetro.com.my/mutakhir/2022/05/839573/masjid-180-tahun-dibaik-pulih
Jia, Q., & He, J. (2026). High-fidelity 3D reconstruction of cultural heritage via super-resolution and progressive Gaussian splatting. Npj Heritage Science, 14(1), 84. https://doi.org/10.1038/s40494-026-02355-4
Kędziorski, P., Jagoda, M., Tysiąc, P., & Katzer, J. (2024). An Example of Using Low-Cost LiDAR Technology for 3D Modeling and Assessment of Degradation of Heritage Structures and Buildings. Materials, 17(22), 5445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225445
Kerbl, B., Kopanas, G., Leimkuehler, T., & Drettakis, G. (2023). 3D Gaussian Splatting for Real-Time Radiance Field Rendering. ACM Transactions on Graphics, 42(4), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1145/3592433
Murtiyoso, A., & Grussenmeyer, P. (2017). Documentation of heritage buildings using close‐range UAV images: dense matching issues, comparison and case studies. The Photogrammetric Record, 32(159), 206–229. https://doi.org/10.1111/phor.12197
Ocón, D. (2021). Digitalising endangered cultural heritage in Southeast Asian cities: preserving or replacing? International Journal of Heritage Studies, 27(10), 975–990. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2021.1883711
Paschalidou, E., Fafet, C., & Milios, L. (2022). A Strong Sustainability Framework for Digital Preservation of Cultural Heritage: Introducing the Eco-Sufficiency Perspective. Heritage, 5(2), 1066–1088. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5020058
Petrovska, I., & Jutzi, B. (2025). 3D Gaussian Splatting Methods for Real-World Scenarios. ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, X-G-2025, 641–648. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-X-G-2025-641-2025
Rahim, S. A. A., Hayati Ismail, N., & Latip, N. S. A. (2022). Analysis Of Current Condition Of Heritage Masjid In Negeri Sembilan. PLANNING MALAYSIA Journal of the Malaysia Institute of Planners, 20, 184–195. https://doi.org/10.21837/pm.v20i21.1102
Sabil, A., Mahmud, N. A. A., Utaberta, N., Amin, N. D. N., Asif, N., & Yusof, H. (2022). The Application of Photogrammetry in Architecture Historical Documentation: The measured drawing of Tanjung Sembrong Mosque and Teratak Selari Bonda. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1022(1), 012007. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1022/1/012007
Salleh, N. H. (2020). Architectural Photogrammetry for the Recording of Heritage Buildings: An Overview. Journal of Architecture, Planning and Construction Management, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.31436/japcm.v2i2.500
Schönberger, J. L., & Frahm, J.-M. (2016). Structure-from-Motion Revisited. Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR).
Stanisheva, M. (2026, February). What Is Gaussian Splatting & Why You Should Know About It? Medium.Com. https://blog.connecterapp.com/what-is-gaussian-splatting-why-you-should-know-about-it-57b81865583b
Suaib, N. M., Ismail, N. A. F., Sadimon, S., & Yunos, Z. M. (2020). Cultural heritage preservation efforts in Malaysia: A survey. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 979(1), 012008. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/979/1/012008
Toyat, J. (2023, October). Budget 2024: RM80 mln allocated for preservation, conservation of UNESCO’s heritage sites. The Borneo Post. https://www.theborneopost.com/2023/10/13/budget-2024-rm80-mln-allocated-for-preservation-conservation-of-unescos-heritage-sites/
Wu, C. (2011). VisualSFM: A Visual Structure from Motion System.
Wu, C., Agarwal, S., Curless, B., & Seitz, S. M. (2011). Multicore Bundle Adjustment. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 3057–3064.
Yu, Y., Verbree, E., van Oosterom, P., & Pottgiesser, U. (2025). 3D Gaussian Splatting for Modern Architectural Heritage: Integrating UAV-Based Data Acquisition and Advanced Photorealistic 3D Techniques. AGILE: GIScience Series, 6, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5194/agile-giss-6-51-2025
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 Unported License.
Copyright & Creative Commons Licence
eISSN: 0128-0945 © Year. The Authors. Published for Malaysian Institute of Planners. This is an open-access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.
The authors hold the copyright without restrictions and also retain publishing rights without restrictions.
